Community Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Community Policing - Essay Example Understanding basic human behavior, including social disorganization theory regarding criminal activity will demonstrate how the activation of community policing programs becomes an effective tool for local police departments. Humans have the propensity to alter their behavior, beliefs, morals and ethics based upon real or perceived societal pressures because of the fundamental and universal need for acceptance by social peers. The failure to comply with conventional ‘norms’ of society often results in serious consequences; the most disconcerting is the segregation from and vilification of a desired group. People will go as far as to alter their deepest belief system and innermost values to be accepted by their friends, neighbors, community and those considered to be superiors. A person may often comply when prompted to act in a certain way by another whether or not they believe it is the correct course to take because the outcome of non-compliance lead to undesirable social consequences. Obedience differs from compliance. A person will obey a directive from a person accepted as an authoritative figure because they do not believe that they have a choice whereas complying is more of a choice. Both of these factors come into play through community policing efforts. In 1951, Solomon Asch demonstrated conformity by demonstrating how people can be routinely influenced by others (Asch, 1951). In his study, Asch gathered a small group of people together to compare a line drawn on one piece of paper to three lines drawn on another, one of which was obviously the same size as the one on the first paper. He then asked the group to determine which of the three lines matched the one. All but one of the group members was collaborating with Asch unbeknownst to the one actual subject of the test who was always positioned to choose last. The collaborators would choose the wrong line so as to determine if the test

Black Arts & Black Aesthetic Essay Example for Free

Black Arts Black Aesthetic Essay Larry Neal’s â€Å"Black Arts Movements† and Addison Gayle’s â€Å"The Black Aesthetic† are two identical mission statements for the black audience: set yourself apart from the white culture and give your culture the recognition it deserves. The two pieces are similar in ideas and purposes. The black communities were tired of always adapting to the ways of the white culture because it was the â€Å"right† way to act. The black community wanted to define their own culture and these pieces were words of encouragement for blacks to step outside the white ways of thinking and acting and step into an acceptance of their own urbanity. Once the differences were accepted that’s when you start seeing the different relationships between whites and blacks. These written pieces were significant changes in thoughts and actions at this time, and they weren’t useless. The blacks were really hoping to set themselves apart from the rest, to have people recognize they were different from the white oppressive mind set, and it worked. Larry Neal’s â€Å"The Black Arts Movement†, written in 1968, speaks directly to the needs and ambitions of Black America at the time. The main goal in â€Å"The Black Arts Movement† is to emphasize the necessity for black culture to define their world in their own terms. Larry Neal asks the question in his piece, â€Å"†¦whose vision of the world is more meaningful, ours or the white oppressors? † (Neal page 2040). He is asking his audience to move away from a white oppressor vision of the world and create their own vision of the world: a vision that has their own beliefs, thoughts, and ideas; a vision that stands out from the white patterns that have consisted years prior. The Black artists’ primary duty is to express the needs of the Black people. Neal explains this idea by saying, â€Å"†¦main thrust of his new breed of contemporary writers to confront the contradictions arising out of the Black man’s experience in the raciest West† (Neal page 2039). In other words, the goals of these new artists is to use a concept of â€Å"protest literature† (page 2040) and direct this new literature directly towards black people to summon hope and â€Å"[awaken] Black people to the meaning of their lives† (Neal page 2042). The Black community had been living in an oppressive society for years prior to this new movement. Neal believed The Black Aesthetic was the destruction of white ideas, and the destruction of white ways of looking at their world. Addison Gayle Jr. was another of these contemporary artists who encouraged a new way of life to the black community in his piece, â€Å"The Black Aesthetic†. The Black Aesthetic movement was the practice that helped those seeking to navigate and understand the experiences of black peoples. Gayle explains the Black Aesthetic movement: â€Å"The question for the black critic today is not how beautiful is a melody, a play, a poem, a novel, but how much more beautiful has the poem†¦made the life of a single black man? The Black Aesthetic, then, as conceived by this writer†¦is a means of helping black people out of the polluted mainstream of Americanism†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Gayle 1916). This is a significant quote because Gayle, and many of the Black Aesthetic artists at the time, really believe that these works of art are not for the critics’ entertainment. Instead they are gritty stories of these Black Peoples’ experiences and they are intended to free the Black Man of an oppressive white America. They are to encourage these black men and women to stop conforming to the white culture and instead embrace their own. The black aesthetic period is so significant because it was a time where the artists made a significant shift in the opinions of the white culture towards the black culture, and even more, it gave a chance to the Black community to find their voice in the madness and be able to stand out amongst the white, oppressive view points of the society they were living in at the time. These two pieces of work connect really well with each other. Essentially I could connect Gayle’s piece to almost any Black Aesthetic piece just because they all have similar viewpoints in regards to the freedom of the oppressive white American culture. However, Larry Neal directly comments on the Black Aesthetics. He describes the Black Arts Movement and the Black Aesthetic as one. Neal says, â€Å"Black Art is the aesthetic and spiritual sister of the Black Power concept. As such, it envisions an art that speaks directly to the needs and aspirations of Black America† (Neal page 2039). This goes with Gayle’s beliefs that the Black Aesthetic is directly made for the needs of the black peoples. Gayle says, â€Å"A critical methodology has no relevance to the black community unless it aids men in becoming better than they are† (page 1917). Gayle and Neal both have this vision for Black Americans that they be freed from this movement, not pushed further into oppression, and they believe the arts can advocate them into being better. The encouragement the artists have for the rest of their brothers and sisters is what makes these two pieces so important, especially when they’re being compared. The black people, whether they are the creators or just regular middle-class folks, share visions of positivity during hardships. They want their brothers to come out and top, so they fight together. The Black Aesthetic movement was a time period where the black Americans, whom had the privilege to create and share poems, stories, and plays, were able to share their creations with the rest of the population to motivate them. Gayle and Neal’s goals are the same: they want the blacks to find their own identity, present themselves differently, and stop following in the footsteps of the whites. They believe that these works of art really can do wonders of change for their brothers and sisters. These stories and creations, poem and plays, aren’t just useless, fictional words that these artist create out of air. They are real life accounts of the battles the black culture have fought in hopes that the oppressive layer of the white America finally comes off their backs. In the following quote, Neal demonstrates how the arts can really be significant. Neal says, â€Å"Poetry is a concrete function, actions†¦Poems are physical entities: fists, daggers, airplane poems, and poems that shoot guns. Poems are transformed into personal forces†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Page 2041). In relationship to Neal, Gayle compares the oppression to war. These two works are compatible to each other. Gayle believes the two cultures are at war, while Neal has the perfect weapon: works of art. Gayle explains the society’s conditions by saying, â€Å"The serious black artist of today is at war with the American society as few have been throughout American history† (Gayle page 1914). Gayle and Neal agree upon this. The Black American culture was at a war with the white American culture and the black artists were doing everything in their power to free themselves of this war using the one weapon they were best at using: words. Using these words of hope and encouragement, and visions of freedom and opportunities, the artists created possibilities. Neal and Gayle had similar visions for the future, as well. They both believed this movement was growing and they believed that growth had been evident in white peoples’ eyes already. Gayle states this growth by saying, â€Å"The white academician†¦calls upon a black man to write the introduction. The editor then declares that his anthology ‘represents the best black literature’ or that he has chosen these works which rank the best in American artistic production. †Ã¢â‚¬  (Gayle page 1918). In saying that a black man can write an introduction and rank the best in production is a significant amount of change for the Black community. The white editors are accepting of the different writing styles and topics, and still finding that it’s quality literature even when it’s unlike theirs; a goal the black aesthetic writers have worked to achieve. Neal has a similar idea on hope, but he also adds his beliefs on the growth of this movement by saying, â€Å"Afro-American life and history is full of creative possibilities, and the movement is just beginning to perceive them. Just beginning to understand that the most meaningful statements†¦must come from the Third World of which Black America is a part† (Neal page 2050). This statement is quite similar to Gayle’s in that the white society in America is starting to recognize the importance in black arts which is a significant change because it’s one that they worked towards for many years. At the time, progress was still being made, but some progress had been made and it was enough to make them feel happy and even more hopeful for the future of the movement. The significance in the pieces is that they set their black community apart from the rest of America. Years prior the whites oppressed the blacks and so at this point in time, the black people were trying desperately to free themselves. In comparing these two pieces you really start to see the similar ideas the black people had about their community. These ideas weren’t just small things a few people decided to write about. They were words of hope for the future. A mission statement to set themselves apart from the rest, testimonies of what the artists have been through, and explanations of why they’re different and why they should be recognized as that. The incredible thing about it: it worked. Gayle, Addison, Jr. , and Larry Neal. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. New York [u. a. : Norton, 2004. Print. ]

Relationship importance and Factors of Marital Adjustment

Relationship importance and Factors of Marital Adjustment Over the course of life, people learn to establish different relationships, with different values, expectations and commitments. One of those relationships is the marital relationship. For A good marital relationship marital adjustment is essential. Sinha Mukerjee (1990) defines marital adjustment as The state in which there is an overall feeling in husband and wife of happiness and satisfaction with their marriage and with each other. Locke Wallace (1959) defines marital adjustment as: accommodation of husband and wife to each other at a given time According to Spanier and Cole (1976), marital adjustment is a process, the outcome of which is determined by the degree of: a) troublesome marital differences, b) interpersonal tensions and personal anxiety, c) marital satisfaction d) dyadic cohesion, e) consensus on matters of importance to marital functioning. There are a number of factors that define a healthy marital adjustment. Some of these factors are Factors involved in Marital Adjustment: Wife employment and Marital Adjustment: Blumstein and Schwartz (1983) had earlier found that individuals, particularly wives, reported increased levels of self-esteem, self-concept, and self-worth were positively correlated with employment. Previous research on the relationship be- tween wife employment and marital adjust- ment has produced conflicting results: some investigations report a positive relationship between wife employment and marital adjust- ment (Burke Weir, 1976; Hartley, 1978); others suggest a negative relationship (Bean, Curtis, Marcum, 1977; Gover, 1963); other studies show no relationship (Bahr Day, 1978; Blood Wolfe, 1960). Nathawat and Mathur (1993) did a study in India about marital adjustment and subjective well-being in Indian-educated housewives and working women. Their results indicated that working women had better marital adjustment and subjective well-being. Working women reported high scores on general health, life satisfaction and self-esteem measures lower scores on hopelessness, insecurity and anxiety whereas the housewives had lower scores on negative affect than the working women. Trust and marital adjustment: Relationships are composed of trust, and sharing of intimate thoughts and feelings. They are built upon trust and sharing and they get stronger from these things (Finkenauer, Kerkhof, Righetti, Branje, 2009). According to Regan, Kocan, and Whitlock (1998) Trust is one of the most important component of a loving relationship. Also international studies have found trust to be a critical factor in the success of long-term marriages (Roizblatt et al. 1999; Sharlin 1996). In a longitudinal study, Kristina Moeller and Hakan Stattin (2001) report that adolescents with trustful parental relationships experienced greater satisfaction with their partner relationships in midlife. Quality of life and marital adjustment Psychological Factors: Depression stress (psychological well being) Lower psychological well-being is a major risk factor for relationship distress. Higher rates of relationship problems have been consistently linked to persons suffering from severe psychiatric disorders, including depression, substance abuse, and anxiety disorders (Bradbury, 1998). Many studies link marital conflict to depression (Beach, Arias, OLeary, 1987; OLeary and Beach, 1990). Although the authors propose a bidirectional causal relationship between marital conflict and depression, they suggest that marital conflict is typically a more powerful contributing factor to depression. Marital satisfaction appears to be an important factor of psychological well being. Marital distress has been linked with many psychological difficulties especially depression. (KAUSAR ANSARI.. thesis) . Belongingness and Marital Adjustment: According to Baumeister Leary (1995) Belongingness might have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of belongingness or attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. In a close relationship there is a need to belong and if that need isnt fulfilled then problems may occur. One of the universal institutions is marriage which is accepted to satisfy the need for belongingness. Economics and Marital Adjustment Education and income have also been linked to marital satisfaction and marital conflict, with greater levels of education and income predicting greater marital satisfaction and less conflict. Economic stress has a negative effect on marital satisfaction and a positive influence on relationship dissolution (Johnson Booth, 1990). Economic strain is directly linked to increased couple disagreements and has direct impact on marital adjustment (Kinnunen and Feldt, 2004). Many researches haves been conducted on economic factor in relation to marital adjustment e.g Zedlewski (2002) studied economic factor in relation to family well-being , he found that low family income and limited benefits have negative influences on child and family well-being. Voyandoff (1990) studied economic distress and family relations.   Ross Mirowsky (1992) and Yadollahi (2009) studied that employment of spouses  and the sense of control in various types of stressors of marital life. Diener and Diener (2001) investigated that wealth is related to many positive outcomes in life. Gudmunson, Beutler, Israelsen, McCoy Hill (2007) found that financial problems significantly contributed to lower reported marital satisfaction among married couples. In a study in Finland conducted by Kinnunen and Feldt (2004) concluded that husbands unempl oyment is strongly associated with his marital adjustment. Couples with better economic resources are martially adjusted as compared to those who have limited economic resources. Economic hard times increased rate of martial distress.   (Blekesaunes   2008)   Personality and Marital Adjustment In a study by Bouchard, Sabourin, Lussier, Y. (1999) the relationship of various personality traits with marital adjustment was studied. Personality traits studied were neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. The scale used to measure marital adjustment was dyadic adjustment scale. The results showed that women high in agreeableness and openness were more adjusted. Also males that were high on openness and agreeableness were more martially adjusted. Husbands openness was positively related to their wives marital adjustment. Open individuals may tolerate and respect differences in behavior and thought of partner which would reduce the number of conflicts and increase the consensus between spouses. Kim, Martin, and Martin (1989) and Levine and Henessy (1990) found that personality factors differentiated stable from unstable marriages. Stable marriages were more similar in intelligence, protension, radicalism, tender-mindedness, mutual trust, acceptance, enthusiasm, and genuineness. Personality factors that reduce the likelihood of stability and satisfaction have included the lack of warmth and extraversion (Levine Henessy); passive-aggression (Slavik, Carlson, Sperry, 1998); borderline pathologies (Paris Braverman, 1995); bipolar disorders (Peven Schulman, 1998); feelings of insecurity, unfairness, depreciation, and powerlessness (Begin, Sabourin, Lussier, Wright, 1997); disagreeableness, emotional instability, inconsiderateness, and physical abuse (Botwin et al., 1997; Kosek, 1996; Shackelford Buss, 1997); depression (Cohan Bradbury, 1997; Davila Bradbury, 1997; Fals-Stewart, Birchler, Schafer, Lucente, 1994); neuroticism (Karney Bradbury, 1997; Russell Wells, 1994a ; Russell Wells, 1994b); tension, anxiety, worry, and suspicion (Craig Olson, 1995); hostility, defensiveness, and aggression (Heyman, OLeary, Jouriles, 1995; OLeary, Malone, Tyree, 1994; Newton, Kiecolt-Glaser, Glaser, Malarkey, 1995); and negative affectivity leading to negative attributions (Huston Vangelistic, 1991; Karney, Bradbury, Fincham, OSullivan, 1994). Individual personality traits have also been linked to couples relationship functioning for both men and women. Personality traits of neuroticism, anxiety, and emotional instability have been shown to impair relationship functioning and reduce relationship satisfaction (Watson Clark, 1984). Additionally, personality characteristics of agreeableness and expressiveness have been referred to as individual protective factors, which may enhance marital satisfaction (Bradbury, Campbell, Fincham, 1995). Communication and Marital Adjustment: Communication is necessary for human growth and development also it serves as the essential foundation for marital success and is the facilitating process for an enduring marriage that is satisfying (Robinson Blanton, 1993). Communication within relationships is an important factor, if there isnt communication the relationship suffers. The relationship between marital communication and adjustment is a strong one (Murphy Mendelson 2004). Gottman (1995) in his book indicated that communication could be both productive and destructive to relationships as unhappy couples tend to criticize, disagree, complain, put down, and use excuses and sarcasm. Unrewarding communication patterns lead to the development of relationship distress (Markman, 1979). In contrast, happy couples with marital stability and satisfaction are more likely to use active listening skills, agree, approve, assent, use laughter and humor (Fisher, Giblin, Hoopes, 1982) and possess character virtues of self-restraint, courage, and friendship (Fowers Olson, 1986). Gottman (1995) has suggested that satisfied couples maintain a five-to-one ratio of positive to negative exchanges in interactions Gender also plays an important role in couple communication as there are gender differences in verbal and nonverbal communication with men tending to be more dominant in their interactions and women being more submissive (Tannen, 1990). Emmers-Sommer (2004) studied the effect of communication quality and quantity indicators on satisfaction in relationships. A key term in the study was quality time; this refers to focused, uninterrupted time spent with children, partners, friends, and significant others. Another key term used in the study was quantity time; this refers to frequency of communication or contact. For individuals to reach relationship satisfaction they have to examine the quantity and quality of their disclosures with their partners. Emmers-Sommer (2004) found that quality of communication predicts both relationship satisfaction and intimacy. The quantity of communication, however, was not a predictor for relationship satisfaction. Concealment/Non- disclosure and marital adjustment: Disclosure  as a phenomenon was first investigated by Sidney Jourard (1971). The process was originally defined as telling others about the self. Rosenfeld (1979) explained self-disclosure as the personal information of self that is only available from himself and is not available from other sources. Jorgensen Gaudy (1980) defines self disclosure as: A process by which a marriage partner ex- presses feelings, perceptions, fears, and doubts of the inner self to the other partner, allowing relatively private and personal information to surface in the relationship that normally would not be revealed in the course of day-to-day interaction. The word conceal has been originated from the Latin work Concelare , celare means to hide. Merriam Webster defines concealment as  to prevent disclosure or recognition. Concealment is the activity of hiding information and keeping secrets from other people. Larson and Chastain (1990) explained self concealed personal information as firstly, a subset of private personal information, secondly, it is accessible only to the individual and thirdly it is actively kept from the awareness of others. Thus, self-concealment involves the conscious concealment of private information like feelings, thoughts, actions or events that one perceives as highly intimate, distressing or negative. Even though concealment and disclosure seem the same, there is some difference between self-disclosure and self-concealment. According to Larson and Chastain 1990 the act of revealing personal information is self- disclosure whereas the act of concealing personal information is self-concealment. They argued that self-concealment and self-disclosure are two separate and distinct constructs even though they are related. Effects of concealment/non-disclosure on marital adjustment Feelings of Exclusion People usually resent it when they perceive that another person is keeping secrets from them. The general reaction towards concealment is that of exclusion since in that persons view his right to know is being violated. This level or degree of exclusion felt by a person is higher when these persons are in a close and intimate relationship (Finkenauer, Kerkhof, Righetti, Branje, 2009). Marital relationships are composed of trust, and sharing of intimate thoughts and feelings. They are built upon trust and sharing and they get stronger from these things. Therefore the quality of relationship is influenced adversely when there is a perception of concealment from partner. The perception of concealment effects on relationship quality, the person feels rejected or excluded (Finkenauer, Kerkhof, Righetti, Branje, 2009). The exclusion that is communicated by concealment can be assumed to violate almost all features and values commonly associated with close relationships, including trust, caring, honesty, friendship, companionship, unconditional acceptance, and respect (Finkenauer, Kerkhof, Righetti, Branje, 2009). Psychological effects To keep secrets or deliberately conceal information from others seems to be part of normal development. Even though every person has secrets they can sometimes be a burden. There are different types of secrets people keep like having cheated on an exam, having a disease, sexual orientation or having been sexually molested as a child. Most of these secrets involve stigmatizing or negative information that usually involves the secret keepers themselves. People who conceal negative or distressing information of self from others as compared to the ones who do not, are more depressed, anxious, shy and have low self-esteem.(Kelly, Klusas, Weiss Kenny, 2001) Effects of Disclosure on marital adjustment Self-disclosure and liking The earliest work done on the relationship between disclosure and liking was by Jourard (1959) who found a positive association between liking the other person and disclosing to that person in a sample of nursing students and faculty. A number of studies have been done on this relationship and confirmed that we disclose more to people whom we like. (e.g., Certner,1973, Fitzgerald, 1963; Worthy, Gary, Kahn, 1969) and also we tend to like the people who disclose personal information to us (e.g., Archer, Berg, Runge, 1980; Daher Banikiotes, 1976;Taylor, Gould, Brounstein, 1981). Self-Disclosure and psychological well-being Most of the studies done on the relationship between concealment and psychological well-being have shown the same results which are that higher levels of disclosure are associated with psychological wellbeing and lower levels of disclosure are associated with poorer mental health. Disclosing distressing information helps with the psychological well-being and not disclosing leads to poorer mental health. It is thought that disclosing distressing information helps psychological well-being by reducing the stress of keeping the information to oneself (Ichiyama et al 1993; Cramer, 1999; Barry and Mizrahi, 2005; Hook and Andrews, 2005; Kahn et al 2002). Gender differences and concealment: Concealment is behavior that is more common in males. On the other hand previous studies indicate that females are usually more willing to disclose distressing or personal information. Traditionally, discussing personal problems is a behavior that is considered more appropriate for females than for males (Kahn and Hessling, 2001). Among men, asking for help when faced with psychological problems is often perceived as a weakness (Jourard and Lasakow, 1958; West, 1970; Jourard, 1971; Cozby, 1973; Kelly and Achter, 1995; Kahn and Hessling, 2001). Moreover, traditional sex-role stereotypes suggest that females are more skillful in communicating and also are more concerned with issues of intimacy than are men. So an intimate disclosure by a man may be seen as less appropriate than a similar disclosure by a woman (Collins Miller 1994). All in all men who disclose are generally viewed as maladjusted whereas women who do not disclose may be viewed as maladjusted. (Collins Miller 1994). Age and tendencies towards disclosure/ non-concealment and in terms of age it has been found that young people are more likely to disclose than older people. (Jourard, 1971; Hook and Andrews, 2005). Literature Review: Labels such as satisfaction, adjustment, success, happiness, and quality have all been used in describing the quality of marriage (Fincham, Beach, Kemp-Fincham, 1997) Theories on marital adjustment and disclosure Social penetration theory: Many studies have dealt with self disclosure. One main theory that was a framework for the study is Social Penetration Theory (Altman Taylor, 1987). This theory was a model for the study because it looks at self disclosure as both the depth and the breadth. In this study the depth of self disclosure is an important factor when reaching satisfaction in relationships. Altman and Taylor use an onion as a metaphor for relationship development. They suggest that the onion represents the breadth and depth of self disclosures. On the outer layer of the onion individuals have the breadth of disclosures: a broad aspect of a person such as their tastes, worldview, and studies. As individuals go deeper into the onion, they get to the depth of disclosures meaning they get more detail on aspects of an individual. This represents the degree of a persons disclosure. The main route to deep social penetration is through individuals disclosures. The depth of penetration would represent the degree of personal disclosure. Altman and Taylor (1987) suggest the depth of penetration into the onion model is the degree of intimacy. This study examines the depth of penetration, breadth is equally important in relationships. This theory supports the idea that people who have a high level of depth in their disclosure will be more satisfied in romantic relationships. This theory does not examine the amount of self disclosure as it does the depth of self disclosure. Three competing models of marital disclosure and satisfaction Jorgensen Gaudy (1980) gave models for marital disclosure and satisfaction and according to Spanier (1976) marital satisfaction is a sub category of marital adjustment. According to the linear model of marital relationship, there exists a positive, linear relationship between marital disclosure and marital satisfaction. Marital relationship is characterized by factors like intimacy, trust and caring. Marital disclosure positively impacts these factors and therefore presence of these factors in a marital relationship systematically increase the level of marital satisfaction. Therefore, this model suggests that higher the level of marital disclosure greater will be the marital satisfaction and vice versa. The curvilinear model as opposed to the linear model suggests that a satisfying marital relationship exists only with medium levels of self disclosure. When self disclosure falls on the high or low end of the continuum of self disclosure, marital satisfaction will decrease. This means that too lack of self disclosure is not the only factor that results in low marital satisfaction. Extensive self disclosure might be perceived as nagging or too much complaining which might raise negative feelings of hostility in the spouse which in turn will decrease the marital satisfaction. Hence, according to this model moderate levels of self disclosure are characterized as a key factor in achieving high marital satisfaction. John Gottmans (1999) scientifically validated theory of marriage, based on 25 years of longitudinal research, is one of the leading theories in the study of marital satisfaction. Gottmans theory (1999) states that positive interaction and friendship is the key to marital satisfaction and the prediction of marital stability over time. According to Gottman (1999), a ratio of 5:1 positive to negative interactions is necessary for marital stability. Gottman defines marital stability as a satisfying marital relationship that is not disrupted by separation or divorce. He states, The most important finding was that more positive affect was the only variable that predicted both marital stability and happiness (p. 21). In Gottmans theory (1999), there is a process of what he calls sentiment override in couples. He states, Sentiment override can be either positive or negative. Negative sentiment override means that people have a chip on their shoulder. These types of partners are hypervigilant, looking for slights or attacks by their partner. Positive sentiment override means that even negativity by the partner is interpreted as informative rather than as a personal attack (p. 164). Positive sentiment override creates a milieu in which the partners are more tolerant and accepting of each other, while negative sentiment override creates a set of expectations that ones spouse will behave negatively. Similarly, OLeary and Smith (1991) refer to this phenomenon as cognitive attributional correlates of marital satisfaction. These authors state that distressed couples are less likely to objectively interpret positive behaviors from their spouses as positive and more likely to interpret the intent of their spouses statements more negatively than they were meant to be. Compared to non-distressed couples, dissatisfied spouses make attributions that cast their partners behavior in a negative light and these attributions in turn negatively influence marital satisfaction (Bradbury Fincham, 1990). In summary, according to Gottman (1999) as well as OLeary and Smith (1991) it is not what happens in the marriage, but how the partners perceive and define what has happened that is critical. Gottman posits that 69% of couples problems will be what he calls, perpetual problems, meaning largely unresolvable. He has found that in the case of the perpetual problems, it is important for couples to establish a dialogue, as opposed to a solution in these instances. When couples cannot dialogue about these issues, they often become gridlocked, where each partner becomes frustrated and eventually emotionally disengaged. The role of communication therefore plays an important role in marital satisfaction. Studies examining marital satisfaction vary in design, measurement, and outcomes, leading to a number of explanations accounting for marital satisfaction (Gottman, 1999). Perception of concealment has an adverse effect on marital relationships. Some researches have been carried out related to this issue. In a longitudinal study it was studied how perceiving concealment in close relationships influences marital well-being. The research showed that people in marital relationships who perceive their partner to be concealing information from them had poor relationships, mistrust and conflict between them. In the study it was also discussed that people who conceal information also perceive that the other person is concealing information from them. Perceiving concealment may give the other partner the impression that he/she is not desirable or cannot be trusted; it gives the other person the feelings of being excluded. And the feeling of exclusion may result in feelings of separation or estrangement which may result in marital conflict (Finkenauer et al., 2009). Another study conducted in Belgium has investigated disclosure and secrecy in close, long-term relationships. It showed in the study that secrecy contributed a lot to marital dissatisfaction. The study explains how a person who has a secret avoids a difficult topic rather than facing it to avoid conflict, while the other partner perceives the secrecy as a sign of suspicion, which contributes negatively to marital satisfaction. Another point in the study was that people trying to hide something on the way feel that they have to put on a mask for the other person so he/she doesnt get to know their secret; they have to pretend which may lead to less intimacy and closeness. People who felt comfortable with sharing their emotions and were able to talk about matters were more satisfied with their relationship. One of the questionnaires used to test their study was the Larson and Chastains (1990) Self- Concealment Scale (Finkenauer Hazam, 2000). Low expressiveness leads to dissatisfaction in a marital relationship. Miller et al. (2003) argued that expressive people are less likely to suffer decline in marital satisfaction. They found that spouses expressiveness was positively related to their own and partners affectionate behaviors and this affectionate behavior was in turn related with marital satisfaction. Expressiveness is positively associated with peoples perception of their partners responsiveness. Davidson, Balswick Halverson (1983) did a study on the Affective Self-Disclosure and Marital Adjustment. It was based upon 162 married couples. The study explains that the greater is the discrepancy in partners affective self-disclosure, the lesser is the individuals marital adjustment. READ WHOLE PAPER AND WRITE. Sprecher and Hendrick (2004) examined the relationship between self-disclosure and relationship quality and found a positive relationship between disclosure and relationship quality. Self-disclosure is an indicator of satisfaction in romantic relationships. Levesque, Steciuk, and Ledley (2002) studied how self-disclosure relates to the development of personal relationships, relational intimacy, and relationship dissolution. The results showed that perceived intimacy was strongly associated with level of self-disclosure. Self-disclosure was found to be strongly reciprocal. Levesque et al. 2002 found that the level of self-disclosure strongly influences individual differences between disclosers. HANSEN E.J SCHULDT J.W (1984) did a study on marital self-disclosure and marital satisfaction. The sample for the study was on a sample of 50 married couples of mean age 25 years and mean length of marriage was 3.18 years and mean education was 15 years. Scales used for measuring the variables were Jourards self disclosure questionnaire( jourard and Lasakow, 1958) and Spaniers (1976) Dyadic Adjustment Scale. the results of the study showed that wifes disclosure to husband was positively related to husbands marital satisfaction and husbands disclosure to wife was also positively related to husbands marital satisfaction. One predictor that may have particular importance to marital satisfaction is gender roles. According to Kurdek (2005) there are two classes of theories that explain the position about how men and women experience close relationships in different ways. the first class, that is the biological, posits that males and females in a relationship process events differently at the cardiovascular, endocrinological, immunological, neurosensory, and neurophysiological levels. For example Kiecolt-Glaser Newton (2001) in their research reviewed evidence showing that men are more physiologically sensitive to acute stressors than women and women showed stronger and more durable physiological changes than men in marital conflict. The other class that is the class of social psychological theories posits that both genders differ in ways that are directly relevant to relationship functioning like the structure and content of how the self is constructed, personality traits and socialized roles. The other class that is the class of social psychological theories posits that both genders differ in ways that are directly relevant to relationship functioning like the structure and content of how the self is constructed, personality traits and socialized roles. Other research has also substantiated that marriage disproportionately benefits men, with husbands reporting higher levels of marital satisfaction and well-being than their wives (Bird Fremont, 1991; McRae Brody, 1989; Schumm, Webb, Bollman, 1998). Gender is defined as the socially determined role of an individual that is ascribed as a result of his or her sex (Juni Grimm, 1994). Gender roles influence men and women in every aspect of their lives and relationships (Knox Schacht, 2000). Demographic characteristics including age, race, income, education, length of marriage, and religiosity, have been linked to marital satisfaction and marital conflict (Knox Schacht, 2000). Based on Gottmans (1999) research, length of marriage is also a significant predictor for marital satisfaction and marital conflict. He identifies two critical time periods of vulnerability in the marital trajectory, with the majority of couples divorcing within the first seven years of marriage. Couples who divorce within the first seven years of marriage have relationships characterized by having high levels of marital conflict. Conversely, a second vulnerable time period for the marital trajectory is 16 to 24 years of marriage. This is the next most likely time frame for couples to divorce. These relationships are characterized by spending little time together, lack of communication, and a lack of conflict expression. Gottman (1999) refers to these couples as two ships passing in the night.

History Of The Jet Engine :: Aviation Engines

Evolution of the Jet Engine Thought the course of time man has constantly sought to better both himself and mankind through creation and invention. From the first time a caveman rubbed two sticks together and discovered fire to the design and development of the Saturn 5 rocket which propelled by that same fire carried man from the earth to the moon. One can argue over whether on not this invention or that was the greatest. I intend to focus my attention on evolution of just one of those technologies the jet engine, and show the importance of its impact in our world. In the early 1920’s, new technology was being developed to enable aircraft to fly higher and faster. This early development of aircraft technology was hindered by the depression until World War II pulled the United States out of economic hardship. Jet engine design has been critical in keeping aircraft in line with other countries’ developing technology. All over the world, countries were racing to be the first with a jet engine powered aircraft. During World War II the quest for air superiority resulted in the need for better, faster aircraft. As a result, the jet engine was created. A simple jet engine can be described as a device that compresses large amounts of high velocity air which mixes with fuel, ignites, and then is propelled out the aft end of the aircraft. Able to keep itself going once started, the jet engine is truly a marvel of the twentieth century. Two people are credited with this wonderful invention: Dr. Hans von Ohain (German) and Sir Frank Whittle (British). Ohain actually created the first engine while Whittle was the first to acquire a patent in 1930. However, Ohain’s jet was the first to fly in 1939, while Whittle was able to get his in the air in 1941. Ohain’s jet engine was tested in a lab in Sep. 1937 and first tested on a plane developed by Ernst Heinkel the Heinkel He178 on Aug. 27th, 1939. The Firm, Power Jets Ltd., got a contract for Whittle’s engine, the W1, July 7th, 1939. The Maiden flight was on May 15th, 1941 with pilot Lieutenant P. E. G. Sayer flying the craft, the Gloster E28/39. The craft flew at roughly 400 mph and the engine produced 1000lbs.

A Game of Thrones Chapter Sixteen

Eddard They've found her, my lord.† Ned rose quickly. â€Å"Our men or Lannister's?† â€Å"It was Jory,† his steward Vayon Poole replied. â€Å"She's not been harmed.† â€Å"Thank the gods,† Ned said. His men had been searching for Arya for four days now, but the queen's men had been out hunting as well. â€Å"Where is she? Tell Jory to bring her here at once.† â€Å"I am sorry, my lord,† Poole told him. â€Å"The guards on the gate were Lannister men, and they informed the queen when Jory brought her in. She's being taken directly before the king . . . â€Å" â€Å"Damn that woman!† Ned said, striding to the door. â€Å"Find Sansa and bring her to the audience chamber. Her voice may be needed.† He descended the tower steps in a red rage. He had led searches himself for the first three days, and had scarcely slept an hour since Arya had disappeared. This morning he had been so heartsick and weary he could scarcely stand, but now his fury was on him, filling him with strength. Men called out to him as he crossed the castle yard, but Ned ignored them in his haste. He would have run, but he was still the King's Hand, and a Hand must keep his dignity. He was aware of the eyes that followed him, of the muttered voices wondering what he would do. The castle was a modest holding a half day's ride south of the Trident. The royal party had made themselves the uninvited guests of its lord, Ser Raymun Darry, while the hunt for Arya and the butcher's boy was conducted on both sides of the river. They were not welcome visitors. Ser Raymun lived under the king's peace, but his family had fought beneath Rhaegar's dragon banners at the Trident, and his three older brothers had died there, a truth neither Robert nor Ser Raymun had forgotten. With king's men, Darry men, Lannister men, and Stark men all crammed into a castle far too small for them, tensions burned hot and heavy. The king had appropriated Ser Raymun's audience chamber, and that was where Ned found them. The room was crowded when he burst in. Too crowded, he thought; left alone, he and Robert might have been able to settle the matter amicably. Robert was slumped in Darry's high seat at the far end of the room, his face closed and sullen. Cersei Lannister and her son stood beside him. The queen had her hand on Joffrey's shoulder. Thick silken bandages still covered the boy's arm. Arya stood in the center of the room, alone but for Jory Cassel, every eye upon her. â€Å"Arya,† Ned called loudly. He went to her, his boots ringing on the stone floor. When she saw him, she cried out and began to sob. Ned went to one knee and took her in his arms. She was shaking. â€Å"I'm sorry,† she sobbed, â€Å"I'm sorry, I'm sorry.† â€Å"I know,† he said. She felt so tiny in his arms, nothing but a scrawny little girl. It was hard to see how she had caused so much trouble. â€Å"Are you hurt?† â€Å"No.† Her face was dirty, and her tears left pink tracks down her cheeks. â€Å"Hungry some. I ate some berries, but there was nothing else.† â€Å"We'll feed you soon enough,† Ned promised. He rose to face the king. â€Å"What is the meaning of this?† His eyes swept the room, searching for friendly faces. But for his own men, they were few enough. Ser Raymun Darry guarded his look well. Lord Renly wore a half smile that might mean anything, and old Ser Barristan was grave; the rest were Lannister men, and hostile. Their only good fortune was that both Jaime Lannister and Sandor Clegane were missing, leading searches north of the Trident. â€Å"Why was I not told that my daughter had been found?† Ned demanded, his voice ringing. â€Å"Why was she not brought to me at once?† He spoke to Robert, but it was Cersei Lannister who answered. â€Å"How dare you speak to your king in that manner!† At that, the king stirred. â€Å"Quiet, woman,† he snapped. He straightened in his seat. â€Å"I am sorry, Ned. I never meant to frighten the girl. It seemed best to bring her here and get the business done with quickly.† â€Å"And what business is that?† Ned put ice in his voice. The queen stepped forward. â€Å"You know full well, Stark. This girl of yours attacked my son. Her and her butcher's boy. That animal of hers tried to tear his arm off.† â€Å"That's not true,† Arya said loudly. â€Å"She just bit him a little. He was hurting Mycah.† â€Å"Joff told us what happened,† the queen said. â€Å"You and the butcher boy beat him with clubs while you set your wolf on him.† â€Å"That's not how it was,† Arya said, close to tears again. Ned put a hand on her shoulder. â€Å"Yes it is!† Prince Joffrey insisted. â€Å"They all attacked me, and she threw Lion's Tooth in the river!† Ned noticed that he did not so much as glance at Arya as he spoke. â€Å"Liar!† Arya yelled. â€Å"Shut up!† the prince yelled back. â€Å"Enough!† the king roared, rising from his seat, his voice thick with irritation. Silence fell. He glowered at Arya through his thick beard. â€Å"Now, child, you will tell me what happened. Tell it all, and tell it true. It is a great crime to lie to a king.† Then he looked over at his son. â€Å"When she is done, you will have your turn. Until then, hold your tongue.† As Arya began her story, Ned heard the door open behind him. He glanced back and saw Vayon Poole enter with Sansa. They stood quietly at the back of the hall as Arya spoke. When she got to the part where she threw Joffrey's sword into the middle of the Trident, Renly Baratheon began to laugh. The king bristled. â€Å"Ser Barristan, escort my brother from the hall before he chokes.† Lord Renly stifled his laughter. â€Å"My brother is too kind. I can find the door myself.† He bowed to Joffrey. â€Å"Perchance later you'll tell me how a nine-year-old girl the size of a wet rat managed to disarm you with a broom handle and throw your sword in the river.† As the door swung shut behind him, Ned heard him say, â€Å"Lion's Tooth,† and guffaw once more. Prince Joffrey was pale as he began his very different version of events. When his son was done talking, the king rose heavily from his seat, looking like a man who wanted to be anywhere but here. â€Å"What in all the seven hells am I supposed to make of this? He says one thing, she says another.† â€Å"They were not the only ones present,† Ned said. â€Å"Sansa, come here.† Ned had heard her version of the story the night Arya had vanished. He knew the truth. â€Å"Tell us what happened.† His eldest daughter stepped forward hesitantly. She was dressed in blue velvets trimmed with white, a silver chain around her neck. Her thick auburn hair had been brushed until it shone. She blinked at her sister, then at the young prince. â€Å"I don't know,† she said tearfully, looking as though she wanted to bolt. â€Å"I don't remember. Everything happened so fast, I didn't see . . . â€Å" â€Å"You rotten!† Arya shrieked. She flew at her sister like an arrow, knocking Sansa down to the ground, pummeling her. â€Å"Liar, liar, liar, liar.† â€Å"Arya, stop it!† Ned shouted. Jory pulled her off her sister, kicking. Sansa was pale and shaking as Ned lifted her back to her feet. â€Å"Are you hurt?† he asked, but she was staring at Arya, and she did not seem to hear. â€Å"The girl is as wild as that filthy animal of hers,† Cersei Lannister said. â€Å"Robert, I want her punished.† â€Å"Seven hells,† Robert swore. â€Å"Cersei, look at her. She's a child. What would you have me do, whip her through the streets? Damn it, children fight. It's over. No lasting harm was done.† The queen was furious. â€Å"Joff will carry those scars for the rest of his life.† Robert Baratheon looked at his eldest son. â€Å"So he will. Perhaps they will teach him a lesson. Ned, see that your daughter is disciplined. I will do the same with my son.† â€Å"Gladly, Your Grace,† Ned said with vast relief. Robert started to walk away, but the queen was not done. â€Å"And what of the direwolf?† she called after him. â€Å"What of the beast that savaged your son?† The king stopped, turned back, frowned. â€Å"I'd forgotten about the damned wolf.† Ned could see Arya tense in Jory's arms. Jory spoke up quickly. â€Å"We found no trace of the direwolf, Your Grace.† Robert did not look unhappy. â€Å"No? So be it.† The queen raised her voice. â€Å"A hundred golden dragons to the man who brings me its skin!† â€Å"A costly pelt,† Robert grumbled. â€Å"I want no part of this, woman. You can damn well buy your furs with Lannister gold.† The queen regarded him coolly. â€Å"I had not thought you so niggardly. The king I'd thought to wed would have laid a wolfskin across my bed before the sun went down.† Robert's face darkened with anger. â€Å"That would be a fine trick, without a wolf.† â€Å"We have a wolf,† Cersei Lannister said. Her voice was very quiet, but her green eyes shone with triumph. It took them all a moment to comprehend her words, but when they did, the king shrugged irritably. â€Å"As you will. Have Ser Ilyn see to it.† â€Å"Robert, you cannot mean this,† Ned protested. The king was in no mood for more argument. â€Å"Enough, Ned, I will hear no more. A direwolf is a savage beast. Sooner or later it would have turned on your girl the same way the other did on my son. Get her a dog, she'll be happier for it.† That was when Sansa finally seemed to comprehend. Her eyes were frightened as they went to her father. â€Å"He doesn't mean Lady, does he?† She saw the truth on his face. â€Å"No,† she said. â€Å"No, not Lady, Lady didn't bite anybody, she's good . . . â€Å" â€Å"Lady wasn't there,† Arya shouted angrily. â€Å"You leave her alone!† â€Å"Stop them,† Sansa pleaded, â€Å"don't let them do it, please, please, it wasn't Lady, it was Nymeria, Arya did it, you can't, it wasn't Lady, don't let them hurt Lady, I'll make her be good, I promise, I promise . . . † She started to cry. All Ned could do was take her in his arms and hold her while she wept. He looked across the room at Robert. His old friend, closer than any brother. â€Å"Please, Robert. For the love you bear me. For the love you bore my sister. Please.† The king looked at them for a long moment, then turned his eyes on his wife. â€Å"Damn you, Cersei,† he said with loathing. Ned stood, gently disengaging himself from Sansa's grasp. All the weariness of the past four days had returned to him. â€Å"Do it yourself then, Robert,† he said in a voice cold and sharp as steel. â€Å"At least have the courage to do it yourself.† Robert looked at Ned with flat, dead eyes and left without a word, his footsteps heavy as lead. Silence filled the hall. â€Å"Where is the direwolf?† Cersei Lannister asked when her husband was gone. Beside her, Prince Joffrey was smiling. â€Å"The beast is chained up outside the gatehouse, Your Grace,† Ser Barristan Selmy answered reluctantly. â€Å"Send for Ilyn Payne.† â€Å"No,† Ned said. â€Å"Jory, take the girls back to their rooms and bring me Ice.† The words tasted of bile in his throat, but he forced them out. â€Å"If it must be done, I will do it.† Cersei Lannister regarded him suspiciously. â€Å"You, Stark? Is this some trick? Why would you do such a thing?† They were all staring at him, but it was Sansa's look that cut. â€Å"She is of the north. She deserves better than a butcher.† He left the room with his eyes burning and his daughter's wails echoing in his ears, and found the direwolf pup where they chained her. Ned sat beside her for a while. â€Å"Lady,† he said, tasting the name. He had never paid much attention to the names the children had picked, but looking at her now, he knew that Sansa had chosen well. She was the smallest of the litter, the prettiest, the most gentle and trusting. She looked at him with bright golden eyes, and he ruffled her thick grey fur. Shortly, Jory brought him Ice. When it was over, he said, â€Å"Choose four men and have them take the body north. Bury her at Winterfell.† â€Å"All that way?† Jory said, astonished. â€Å"All that way,† Ned affirmed. â€Å"The Lannister woman shall never have this skin.† He was walking back to the tower to give himself up to sleep at last when Sandor Clegane and his riders came pounding through the castle gate, back from their hunt. There was something slung over the back of his destrier, a heavy shape wrapped in a bloody cloak. â€Å"No sign of your daughter, Hand,† the Hound rasped down, â€Å"but the day was not wholly wasted. We got her little pet.† He reached back and shoved the burden off, and it fell with a thump in front of Ned. Bending, Ned pulled back the cloak, dreading the words he would have to find for Arya, but it was not Nymeria after all. It was the butcher's boy, Mycah, his body covered in dried blood. He had been cut almost in half from shoulder to waist by some terrible blow struck from above. â€Å"You rode him down,† Ned said. The Hound's eyes seemed to glitter through the steel of that hideous dog's-head helm. â€Å"He ran.† He looked at Ned's face and laughed. â€Å"But not very fast.†

Freedom of the Press Versus Right to Privacy

Privacy has become a big issue in contemporary jurisprudence. The â€Å"right to privacy† is enshrined in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, and guaranteed by Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights. But Article 8 is balanced by Article 10, which guarantees â€Å"free expression of opinion†. So what right has priority when they conflict? Under what circumstances, for example, is it right to curtail press freedom in order to protect the right to privacy, or vice versa? The same balance is being sought between the right of citizens to data privacy and government demands for access to personal information to fight crime, terrorism, and so on. Freedom of speech is a fundamental democratic liberty. It is a necessary protection against abuses of power and cover-ups of wrongdoing by public officials. It was never more effectively displayed than in the Watergate investigation, which brought down Richard Nixon in 1974. But one can have too much press freedom. Over the years, the tabloid press has become increasingly intrusive, claiming the right not just to expose corruption and incompetence in high places, but to titillate readers with scandalous revelations about the private lives of the famous. What started off as entertaining gossip about royalty and film stars has burgeoned into a massive assault on privacy, with newspapers claiming that any attempt to keep them out of the bedroom is an assault on free speech. The issue has just been tested in Britain's High Court. In March, Britain's leading scandal sheet, The News of the World, published an â€Å"exclusive† front page story, under the headline â€Å"F1 Boss Has Sick Nazi Orgy With 5 Hookers†. It told how Max Mosley, President of the Federation Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA, the body that oversees world motoring and racing) and son of the former British fascist leader, Sir Oswald Mosley, had, two days earlier, taken part in a sadomasochistic â€Å"orgy† with a â€Å"Nazi theme† in a private apartment in London. The story was accompanied by photographs taken clandestinely by one of the women in cooperation with the News of the World, which readers were invited to download from the paper's website. Max Mosley admitted participating in this (not illegal) happening, but sued the News of the World for breach of privacy; the newspaper argued that it was in the â€Å"public interest† that Mosley's sexual activities be disclosed. The presiding judge, Justice Eady, rejected the newspaper's defense, and awarded Max Mosley 60,000 English pounds ($115,000) compensation for the invasion of his privacy, the highest damages so far given for a complaint brought under Article 8. There is a curious aspect to Eady's judgment. He rejected the News of the World's â€Å"public interest† defense, because he found no evidence that the sadomasochistic party had a â€Å"Nazi theme†. This implies that had there been a Nazi theme, it could have been legitimate to publish it, given Mosley's position as FIA president. But surely the particular nature of Mosley's private fantasies is irrelevant to the case. It is hard to see why I am less entitled to privacy because I am turned on by a Nazi uniform than I would be if I were excited by a pair of knickers. What Eady's judgment did accomplish was to highlight the crucial distinction, necessary for all clear thinking about privacy, between what interests the public and what is in the public interest. So how can this distinction be made effective? France has a privacy law that explicitly defines both the scope of privacy and the circumstances in which the law applies. By contrast, in Britain it is left to judges to decide what the â€Å"right to privacy† means. There is a natural fear that specific legislation designed to protect privacy would muzzle legitimate press inquiries. At the same time, it is widely acknowledged (except by most editors and journalists) that a great deal of media intrusion is simply an abuse of press freedom, with the sole aim of boosting circulation by feeding public prurience. A law that curtails the abuse of press power while protecting its freedom to expose the abuse of political power would be difficult, but not impossible, to frame. The essential principle is that the media should not be allowed to pander to the public's prurience under cover of protecting the public interest. What famous people – indeed ordinary people, too – do in private should be off limits to the media unless they give permission for those activities to be reported, photographed, or filmed. The only exceptions would be if a newspaper has reasonable grounds for believing that the individuals concerned are breaking the law, or that, even if they are not breaking the law, they are behaving in such a way as to render them unfit to perform the duties expected of them. Thus, a pop star's consumption of illegal drugs may be reported, but not his or her sexual habits (if they are legal). The private life of a politician may be revealed if it is expected to have consequences for the way the country is being governed; that of a top executive of a public company if it may affect the returns to shareholders. This should be the only â€Å"public interest† defense available to a media outlet that is sued for invasion of privacy. The media might become a bit drearier, but public life would be far healthier. The author is a professor emeritus of political economy at Warwick University